Table 1 Classification of fungal endophytes

Ecology

Clavicipitaceous

They are associated with sedges and grasses; they phylogenetically belong to the hypocreales family. They help to protect the host plants against insects who feed on them

Hypocreales family (Grasses and sedges)

Balansia spp., Acremonium coenophialum, Epichloe spp., Neotyphodium coenophialum, and Epichloe festucae

Rodriguez et al. (2009), Khiralla et al. (2016), Sravani et al. (2020)

Non- Clavicipitaceous

They are majorly associated with conifers, ferns, and non-vascular plants

Non-vascular plants, ferns, and conifers

Fusarium culmorum, T. diccocoides, Curvularia protuberate, Colletotrichum spp. and A. sharonensis, 

Llorens et al. (2019)

Mode of reproduction

Sexual

These fungi reproduce sexually; their stomata which are produced during sexual reproduction, reduce seed and flower production, a condition referred to as “choke” in grasses

Angiosperm trees, such as Picea abies

Ph. nodosa, Acer saccharum, Epichloe spp., Ph. Piceae and Ph. Scopiformis,

Schardl and Craven (2003), Schardl et al. (2004), Tanney et al. (2016), Li et al. (2017), Bamisile et al. (2018), Hume et al. (2020)

Asexual

This group of endophytes shows no symptoms in plants: however, they colonize plant embryos and thus could be transmitted through the plant seeds

Ericaceous plants (such as Empetrum nigrum, Calluna vulgaris, Vacci-nium myrtillus) and coniferous trees (such as Picea spp., Pinus spp., and Abies spp.)

Phialocephala dimorphospora, Ph. scopiformis, Neotyphodium spp., Ph. Fortinii, and Ph. sphaeroides

Schardl and Craven (2003), Schardl et al. (2004), Tanney et al. (2016), Li et al. (2017), Bamisile et al. (2018), Hume et al. (2020)

Mode of transmission

Vertically transmitted

It involves the transmission of fungi through the seeds of plants. There are often differences in the proportion of the offspring of plants that carry the seeds, also, there could be variation in the concentration of the mycelia and secondary compounds present in the seeds

Grasses, e.g., switch grass, Rumex acetosa, Senecio vulgaris, C. nigra, Plantago lanceolata, Papaver rhoeas, and Centaurea cyanus

Epichloë spp., A. alternata and C. sphaerospermum

Hodgson et al. (2014), Gundel et al. (2017)

Horizontally transmitted

The majority of the fungi in this group are natural inhabitants of the soil from which they get into the plants. However, they could be transmitted through the air or air-borne spores

Panicum rigidulum Lolium perenne

Balansia henningsiana Neotyphodium lolii

Ren and Clay (2009), Wiewióra et al. (2015)

Sources of nutrition

Biotrophs

They derive their nutrients from the tissue of living matters

Oryza sativa

Aspergillus spp., Magnaporthe oryzae, Penicillium Chrysogenum, and Hymenochaete sp.

Su et al. (2013)

Necrotrophs

They kill the host cells and live in them

Syngonium podophyllum

Bjerkandera fumosa, Phanerochaetaceae spp., Phlebiopsis flavidoalba and Hymenochaete ustulata

García-Guzmán et al. (2017)

Expression of infection

Symptomatic

They cause diseases in plants and show symptoms

Vitis vinifera

Acremonium spp., Cadophora spp., Coniothyrium spp., Fomitiporia spp., Hypoxylon spp., Paecilomyces spp., and Paraphoma spp.

Nerva et al. (2019)

Asymptomatic

They cause diseases in plants and show no symptoms

Vitis vinifera

Leptosphaeriulina spp., Microdiplodia spp., Scopulariopsis spp., Fusarium spp., and Myrothecium spp.

Nerva et al. (2019)

Body part attacked

Foliar

They exist on the leaves and stems of plants

Theobroma cacao

Colletotrichum tropicale

Christian et al. (2017), Christian et al. (2019)

Root

They are generally found in the root of plants

Phoenix dactylifera

Aspergillus tubingensis, Corynespora cassiicola, Clonostachys rosea, Penicillium commune, Beauveria bassiana, Fusarium solani, Campanella olivaceonigra, Phomopsis lagerstroemiae, Ilyonectria radicicola, Aspergillus sclerotiorum Phomopsis lagerstroemiae, and Fusarium equiseti

Mahmoud et al. (2017)